vowels and consonants. Data were collected from native speakers’ intuitions, interviews, and orthographic texts. The findings show that diacritics reliably indicate contrastive features in Tiv, clarifying the phonemic inventory and revealing a internally consistent system that aligns with

wider Niger-Congo patterns, enabling cross-linguistic comparison. The study also emphasises the importance of accurate diacritic use in supporting effective orthographic representation, literacy materials, and language education.

It is advised that future research continue documenting tone

and nasalisation patterns and develop standardised orthographic conventions through collaboration with educators and native speakers. Such efforts will enhance teaching resources, dictionaries, and written

communication, aiding in the preservation of the Tiv linguistic heritage and encouraging effective language use among both native speakers and learners.